Cross-cultural differences in taste: the effect of individual variation on consumers' perceptual, hedonic and emotional responses

Abstract

Both biological and cultural factors have been shown to contribute to consumers’ responses to foods, however, current studies tend to address these factors in isolation. The present research addressed this knowledge gap by investigating the combined effect of ethnicity, Sweet Liking (SL) phenotype, PROP Taster Status (PTS), genetic variation and gender on liking, perception and emotional response to chocolate across Caucasian (n=222) and Chinese (n=242) consumers. Two taste phenotypes – SL phenotype and PTS – are commonly attributed to the variation in sweet and bitter taste perception and liking, however, it is unknown how the distribution of these phenotypes varies by ethnicity. The role of SL phenotype and PTS is of particular interest when it comes to chocolate, as it elicits both sweet and bitter tastes simultaneously. To classify participants for SL phenotype in both ethnic groups, a robust correlation matrix approach was applied. A significant association between SL phenotype and ethnicity was found, with a larger proportion of Chinese subjects classified as Low Sweet Likers (LSL) and more Caucasians classified as High Sweet Likers (HSL). As expected, a smaller proportion of Chinese were classified as PROP Non-Tasters compared to Caucasians. Interestingly, LSL rated the sweetness intensity significantly higher than HSL in both ethnic groups, thus suggesting that the differences in sweet taste sensitivity might explain the variation in hedonic responses between SL phenotype groups. Five chocolate formulations varying in sweetness and bitterness were designed to ascertain the effect of sample composition on consumers’ responses. Emotional ratings were found to be more discriminating than hedonic scores. Moreover, significant variation in emotional response between the different SL phenotype, PTS and gender groups was found, showing that self-reported emotions were able to discriminate not only between the formulations, but also the different consumer segments within each ethnic group. Cross cultural differences in liking and taste perception were observed. Chinese subjects preferred lower sweetness levels in both solutions and chocolates, and were found to be more sensitive to the sweetness of chocolate compared to Caucasians. Due to complexity of the data, a regression tree analysis was conducted, and found that SL phenotype, sucrose concentration and ethnicity were the three primary predictors of solution liking and perceived sweetness intensity. For chocolate, the hedonic response and perceived sweetness intensity scores were predominantly influenced formulation, ethnicity, SL phenotype and gender. Overall, the regression tree approach provided a comprehensive hierarchical overview of the factors influencing the perceived taste intensity and liking of sucrose solutions and chocolate samples, which was not obtainable through the application of ANOVA. Lastly, the effect of eight single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within TAS1R2, TAS1R3, TAS2R38 and CD36 receptor genes in the Caucasian cohort was explored. A limited association between SL phenotype and the investigated SNPs was found, suggesting the lack of genetic predisposition of this phenotype. The differences in liking and taste perception of chocolate were predominantly influenced by the allelic variation in the TAS2R38 gene. This research delivered novel insights into cross-cultural differences in taste responsiveness, liking and emotional responses to sucrose solutions and chocolate products varying in sensory attributes. Analysis comparing the distribution of SL phenotype and PTS across Caucasian and Chinese ethnic groups provided an understanding into the possible mechanisms behind the cross-cultural variation in sweet taste and chocolate preferences, pointing towards cultural predisposition as the most likely underlying mechanism for the perceptual and hedonic differences observed in the present research.